Technical English and General English Essay Example

Technical English and General English Essay English today has become more than the Lingua Franca of the masses. It has become the lifeline. The call of the hour is for the academia to well-equip itself with the most competent language skills. Only then can suitable help be extended to the beneficiaries, the students. My paper will focus on the nature of General and Technical English today. It will also attempt to show how Technical English and General English can be made more student-centric as the Academic language. The second most spoken language in the world and the lingua franca in many professions, English is a culturally rich, exciting field of study, with some 380 million native speakers. Only Chinese and Hindi have more native speakers while Spanish is similar in number. English is also the dominant member of the Germanic languages. It has lingua franca status in many parts of the world, due to the military, economic, scientific, political and cultural influence of the British Empire in the 18th, 19th and early 20th centuries and that of the United States from the early 20th century to the present. Through the global influence of native English speakers in cinema, music, broadcasting, science, and the Internet in recent decades, English is now the most widely learned second language in the world, although other colonial languages such as French and Spanish retain much importance worldwide. The Business Week statistics declares that speaking English increases your salary by a minimum of 35%. With all these numbers in mind, let me commence by shifting my focus, first to Technical English. Technical English English for Engineers, as it is known today lays a lot of emphasis on the functional aspect of the language. Comprehension, report writing, composing letters for various occasions and similar technical aspects comprise the language that is learnt by the professionals today. Technical English has more to do with the fine tuning of the learner’s LSRW (Listening, Speaking, Reading and Writing) skills. A focus is placed on Language with prefixes and suffixes, Adjectives and Modals, Infinitives and Gerunds so on and so forth. We will write a custom essay sample on Technical English and General English specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Technical English and General English specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Technical English and General English specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer While explaining these, the teacher often finds that the learner is unable to comprehend these, unless he/she has a basic knowledge of grammar and this is a vicious circle. Where do we begin? The Million dollar question looms large before the tutor. Listening for specific information, for note-taking, making inferences; listening to recorded telephonic conversations and listening to reports and audio texts- all these sound very gratifying in black and white. But how much is effectively employed by the student to refine his language skills? The question is still unanswered. Speaking skills place a lot of importance to pronunciation and accent. Of course, the language labs are extensively used by the institutions to enable the smooth process of enhancing these skills. Out of the lab premises, accent is placed on conversation practice in different situations, self and peer introduction, debates and oral presentations. Since these are not emphasized at the school level, the I year students find the transition difficult. The difficulty arises because the entire syllabi is packed within the first year of study. There is no time to give ample scope for the development of each individual skill. Predicting the content, Skimming the text for the gist, Scanning for specific information dampens the spirit of a poor reader. It is disheartening to say that most of the youngsters today browse more and read and read very less and thereby, are poor readers. It is essential for us to first instill in them the love for reading. Teachers today have to be role models themselves. Thrust must be given to reading books rather just spoon feeding them with the details of the books. A love for literature must be developed in the student. As Sachidananda Mohanty says, â€Å"I do believe that literature has a great relevance in the contemporary context because it is the gateway to liberal education, creativity, humanism and most of all, spirituality. The absence of it deprives citizens of having a rounded personality and an integrated view of life. In today’s world, we find people lacking sensitivity which is manifest in terms of gender violence and other abuses of human rights. It is reflective of the fact that we lack the means to understand life. In the context of late capitalism and affluent society, literature has to be reinvented to serve the interest of humanity that is at crossroads. †(1) When this love for literature is developed, the rest follows suit and there is no need for the teacher to thrust English on the student. The learning will happen automatically and he/she would also evolve as a fuller human being. It is because today’s world is very materialistic and prosaic. The curriculum should add spice to the Technical English syllabus, make it more lovable and rename it, if necessary. Technical English should be extended to at least 4 semesters and its significance in today’s world of communication must be sent across as an important message to the learner. Each semester can be devoted for a particular skill (LSRW) and prose, poetry, drama and such related genres have to be subtly introduced to the young learner. There would be speculations about dealing with high achievers who are very proficient in the language. For such students, the curriculum can be widened to include tougher aspects of language and literature which would be a challenge to them. After all, what is life without spice? Poetry does have a place in our world, a necessary place. Less and less do we find poetry taught in technical schools, and many people say poetry doesn’t belong in our lives. That idea is wrong, sadly wrong. However, a resurgence of teaching literature and poetry has occurred, even to teaching literature to professional students and others in the health-care fields, according to Dr. Pereira. The study and writing of poetry brings much to our lives. The Rev. H. C. Beeching agrees in â€Å"An Address on the Teaching of Poetry† Ambleside Online because the study of poetry sharpens powers of observation and helps one store memories. He states, â€Å" the purpose of poetry is to communicate or extend the joy of life by quickening our emotions. †(2) Peter Pereira, MD, writes in â€Å"The healing power of poetry,† The Writer March 2007, that â€Å"the reading and writing of poems can help us (physicians) develop empathy and thus become better doctors. †(3) Empathy is defined as an emotional connection and understanding. Therefore, Beeching and Pereira agree on that point: the purpose of poetry helps with emotional understanding. Pereira goes on to say that since physicians have less time with their patients than ever, they need to develop listening and interpretive skills. The study of poetry, especially the lyric poem, may be a way for students to learn needed skills. Empathy is using one’s imagination to be in another’s position. Poetry exercises one’s powers of imagination as well as helping to gain skill in the use of language. Doctors, nurses, aides, as well as family members, friends, and business people need those skills. Two other things Pereira believes to be true about the purpose and need for poetry are that reading and writing poetry can help patients facing life-threatening or life-altering illness. I addressed this in my article â€Å"Writing through Troublesome Times. Poetry helps a person to â€Å"vent† and to pour emotions onto paper or computer screen, and then to manage the emotions and pain involved. Pereira’s third idea is that the reading and writing of poetry can help heal the world. The doctor states, â€Å"Poetry of witness has long been a way that cultures and civilizations all over the wor ld remember things – their war stories, the cultural milestones – and give voice to the oppressed or the disappeared. † A way to bring some healing not only to individuals, but to the world, gives poetry a purpose and a need that can’t be ignored. What one should understand is that, what is applicable to the man of medicine is also relevant to the engineer, the architect and every person in every walk of life. And what is proclaimed for poetry is relevant for all genres of literature. The idea may sound far fetched but it is the need of the hour to make the young learner interested in the language. General English General English, on the other hand, is a slightly more palatable form of literature that is presented to the students. Though emphasis is laid on communicative aspects today, the learners are exposed to regular genres of Prose, Poetry, Drama and Short Story. This is coupled with Functional English which includes Comprehension, Note-making, Developing hints and the like. While earlier, the prose pieces prescribed for the learners were not so forthcoming and were not received so well by the I and II year students of General English, the Universities have now studied the pulse of the students. In the last decade, with 2 revisions of the syllabus, it is gratifying to note that E. M. Forster’s â€Å"Challenge of our time† has been replaced with interesting pieces like Sam Horn’s â€Å"How to avoid an argument† and funny ones like â€Å"To know when to say, ‘It’s none of your business’. The teacher is able to evince a visible difference in the understanding and appreciation of such lessons by the learner. These are day to day topics and situations which all people, young and old, come across in everyday life. The student is able to identify himself/herself with the character in the lesson and th e grasping of the idea happens in a facile manner. When authors are introduced with the lesson, literature can be slowly introduced to him/her and their interest can be enthused. They feel motivated to first ick a novel from the library and read it and then pieces of literature can be shown her/his way. There is no denying the need for literature in a person’s life, whatever the language. However, in the past this idea was presented in an exaggerated manner. The curriculum makers were too interested in getting Shakespeare into the young learners’ mind. There was frustration when annotative passages had to be learnt to secure marks. The question arose in the minds of learners: What am I going to do learning the Act and Scene, when I just want to enjoy the story? This is where the frustration began. The focus shifted to identifying the Act and the Scene, rather than the beauty of the Bard of Avon’s poetry in drama. Now, there is a paradigm shift from whole plays of Shakespeare to important scenes from his plays. One-act plays, especially the humourous ones are assimilated by the learner and enjoyment and learning happens at the same time. It is poetry that is still a challenge for the student. At this juncture, I think it is duty to make a mention of the fact that a lion’s share of the syllabus must be devoted for the Indian writers. It is only through these protagonists that one gets to know the Indian culture and tradition which is rich and abundant. Shakespeare is versatile, but so is Kalidasa. Keats is proficient but so is Subramanya Bharathi. What should be communicated to the students is that, despite English being a foreign language, the Indian writers are able to exploit it and present ideas like the native speakers and writers. One finds that the language is simple and closer to the heart. The ideas and situations are our everyday ideas and situations. The mother in the lesson is like our mother, for every Indian mother fits into the mould. That is why, Ezekiel’s â€Å"For Elkana† seems to be like our own family anecdote and A. K. Ramanujan’s â€Å"Obituary† brings memories of the forefathers of our own families. Since Grammar takes a good share of the syllabus, the student is able to equip herself/ himself with what is essential from today’s perspective, yet enjoy the subject and not regard it a burden. More than anything, the English classes have to be interactive and the learners encouraged to be participative. The Soft Skills introduced with this purpose in mind, has to be implemented in a more inclusive and serious manner. More time to be allocated for slow learners and scope must be given to them for participating without inhibitions. All this can happen only if more time is allotted for the language. At the same time, too much should not be thrust into the learner’s mind, for, she/he has to learn other subjects, too. Slowly, yet steadily, this has to be achieved. Grammar for the General English students is still at the basic level as at school. This can be continued with more workbooks compiled by experienced teachers who know the shortcomings of the students. This applies to Technical English learners also. Conclusion Teaching English, or in fact, any language has much in common with any other teaching, but also has its own unique challenges. Among other things, it needs some understanding of how language works, quite a bit of patience, and considerable showmanship. Teaching English as a second language is significantly different than teaching English literature and composition to a high school class of (mostly) native speakers, though of course there is some overlap as well. For one thing, even intelligent adult second language learners make grammar and pronunciation errors on things any four-year-old native speaker knows; an ESL teacher has to teach and correct those. Also, you have to monitor and adjust your own English, speaking slowly and clearly, avoiding slang, sometimes explaining terms, and so on. At any level, the teaching needs to be highly interactive. Too much talk by the teacher is fatal; you cannot teach language-using skills either by lecturing or (except in tiny groups) with a series of one-on-one interactions between the teacher and different students. You must set up situations for students to actually use the language. Often this means introducing some vocabulary and/or grammatical structures on the board or in a listening or reading exercise, then setting up some sort of pairs or group task where students can try it out. Various sorts of discussion, role-playing or game activities are often used. A whole range of props are often used — maps to practice giving directions, newspaper clippings for reading comprehension or summary-writing practice, menus for a restaurant, role-play, pictures for parts-of-the-body or parts-of-a-car, cartoons to provoke discussion, and so on. Sometimes the teacher must find or invent these; sometimes the school has a stock, as in the picture, or they can be borrowed from other teachers. It is fairly common for teachers working overseas to ask friends at home to mail them posters and other props, or to collect props themselves on visits home. If you are going abroad to teach, bring props or mail yourself a batch before leaving home. Getting beginners to speak English is difficult. Techniques include translation, mime, pictures, and a lot of repetition. With young learners, you may be able to make a game of it. With intermediate students, you get questions that strain your knowledge of your own language. If He doesnt have much money is OK, what is wrong with He has much money? Which is better: a big red balloon or a red big balloon? Why? Is the other incorrect or just unusual? Training and grammar reference books can help here, but sometimes the answer is just That is the way we do it. For advanced students, especially in ESP settings, you may need considerable knowledge beyond the language itself. For example, to teach business English above a certain level, you must know quite a bit about business. A major part of the ESP approach is needs analysis, figuring out how your students will use the language. In some situations, needs analysis is a formal process and courses are written to order for specific groups. Often, however, the teacher just does an informal analysis and finds or invents exercises to suit a class. Consider a company somewhere that exports products to English-speaking countries. The engineers might just need to read manuals and product specifications in English; they might never hear, speak or write it. Marketers might need to read the quite different language of orders and contracts, and to both read and write emails in much less formal language. Some of them might also need to talk with customers. Executives might need to handle complex negotiations in English — a task that requires not only excellent spoken English but also business skills and an awareness of cultural differences. Ideally, each of these groups would get a different English course. There are three aims to teach English, technical or general, is just this. The first is to create or to encourage in every student the desire to read the best books, and to know the beauty of literature itself rather than what has been written about literature. The second is to interpret literature both personally and historically, that is, to show how a great book generally reflects not only the authors life and thought but also the spirit of the age and the ideals of the nations history. The third aim is to show, by a study of each successive period, how iterature has steadily developed from its first simple songs and stories to its present complexity in prose and poetry. General English, with its prose, poetry other genres of literature has versatility. It has the technical aspects of Semantics and Grammar, too. With Prose and poetry, one can see the aesthetic beauty of the language. One can dwell in the world of his own creativity or relate to the writer, empathize with the auth or or sympathize with the poet. The reader can drink the grandeur of the language. Today, the curriculum includes variety through drama, novels, short stories, prose pieces and poems. But only if the grammatical skill is strengthened, they can place down their exposition of these aspects of literature. This should start at the grass root level. More thrust on Communication skills should be made. That’s the need of the hour. Technical English is without frills and laces. But what is life without colour, gaiety and beauty? A young reader/student must be given an opportunity to enjoy and assimilate the magnificence of language. But Technical English is formal, down-to-earth approach to the language. It puts you through the English that is required for the profession. The time frame to learn is limited and it narrows down to the necessary details of Grammar and Comprehension and its likes. If it is extended to the other 2 years of the Technical students’ curriculum, justice can be done. Otherwise, it becomes namesake. Hence, it is combined responsibility of the academia and the curriculum-makers to blend in the necessary requisites to suit the students’ special needs of English. References: (1) www. amazon. com (2) http://www. amblesideonline. org (3) http://www. amblesideonline. org PRESENTED BY: MS. REMA. V LECTURER IN ENGLISH G. S. S. JAIN COLLEGE FOR WOMEN VEPERY CHENNAI-7

Sport Scale Essay Essays

Sport Scale Essay Essays Sport Scale Essay Essay Sport Scale Essay Essay ABSTRACT The primary intent of this survey was to develop a valid and dependable instrument to measure athletics fan motive. Besides. the new step was employed to analyze the relationship between athletics fan motive and cultural individuality. One hundred 60 nine college pupils from two southeasterly establishments participated in this survey. Data were analyzed utilizing exploratory and collateral factor analysis. Bivariate correlativity. t trial. ANOVA. and descriptive statistics. The Fan Motivation Scale ( FMS ) . developed in this survey. consisted of six constituents with 22 points. The figure of points under every constituent scope from 5 to 2 points ( quality of the game 4 points. get away 5 points. ennui turning away 5 points. societal 3 points. amusement 3 points. and athletics atmosphere 2 points ) . In add-on. two hypotheses were tested in the current survey. The first hypothesis was that cultural individuality is positively related to feature fan motive. The 2nd hypothesis assumed that there was a difference between African Americans and European Americans in their cultural individuality. The consequences revealed the FMS is a dependable step with an overall alpha mark of 0. 90. Significant differences were found between participants in the entire FMS and some of the subscales based on gender and ethnicity. However. the results of the samples examined in this survey do non back up the first hypothesis. Therefore. no important relationship was found between athletics fan motive and cultural individuality. Sing the 2nd hypothesis. a important difference was found between African Americans and European Americans in their cultural individuality. seven Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION Sports have become an progressively of import portion of our society. Sports fans represent a important per centum of athletics consumers. because 70 per centum or more of Americans ticker. read. or discuss athleticss at least one time a twenty-four hours ( Iso-Ahola A ; Hatfield. 1986 ) . From 1985 to 1998. attending has significantly increased at the four major athleticss in the United States. Major League Baseball ( MLB ) had the largest addition in the figure of people go toing games ( 24. 2 million. a 50 % addition ) . followed by professional hoops ( 10. 3 million. a 89 % addition ) . professional football ( 5. 7 million. a 40 % addition ) . and professional hockey ( 5. 6 million. a 49 % addition ) . The figure of people go toing college featuring events has besides increased during this clip period ( U. S. Census Bureau. 2000 ) . Additionally. more telecasting scheduling clip is being devoted to featuring events. The ESPN was the 5th highest ranked telecasting web in 2000. in footings of gross. it was estimated to be $ 2. 1 billion ( McAvoy. 2000 ) . With the addition of involvement in athleticss has become an increased involvement of athleticss fans as consumers. Sport squads and companies are really interested in pulling as many consumers as possible to buy game tickets or merchandises. Therefore. athletics sellers should admit the factors that drive fans to follow athletics by go toing. watching on telecasting. or buying merchandises. However. understanding the impression of athleticss fans is non simple because their attitudes and behaviours are non determined by a individual motivation or factor but instead occur for a assortment of grounds ( Mashiach. 1980 ) . Statement of the Problem There has been a turning involvement in the survey of athletics fan motives in recent old ages to better understand fan behaviours ( Bilyeu A ; Wann. 2002 ; Funk. Mahony. Nakazawa. A ; Hirakawa. 2001 ; Funk. Mahony A ; Ridinger. 2002 ; Funk. Ridinger. A ; Moorman. 2003 ; Gantz. 1981 ; Kahle. Kambara. A ; Rose. 1996 ; Lee. 2002 ; Mahony. Nakazawa. Funk. James. A ; Gladden. 2002 ; Pease A ; Zhang. 2001 ; Trail A ; James. 2001 ; Wann. 1995 ; Wann. Bilyeu. Brennan. Osborn A ; Gambouras. 1999 ; Wann. Brewer. A ; 1 Royalty. 1999 ; Wann. Schrader A ; Wilson. 1999 ) . Some of these surveies have introduced steps of different ingestion motivations of athletics fans. In add-on. research workers have examined the relationship between fan motive and other variables such as squad designation. engagement. gender. and race. The steps used in old surveies to measure fan motives vary in length and figure of constituents. However. some of the constituents are used in all or most graduated tables such as the amusement constituent. the household constituent. and the friends constituent. They besides portion really similar points with respect to similar constituents. Items used in most old graduated tables frequently begin with the words â€Å"I like† . â€Å"I enjoy† . or â€Å"I feel† which raises a cogency issue for the steps because the aforesaid words represent satisfaction and attitude instead than motive. Fan satisfaction relates to the felicity and pleasance associated with the result of a clean event while fan attitude represents the sentiment and feelings an person has about a athletics squad or featuring event. On the other manus. athletics fan motive refers to the grounds that drive persons to back up athletics squads. be loyal to them. purchase team/sport related merchandises. ticker and go to featuring events. The Purpose of the Study The intent of this survey was to develop a valid and dependable instrument to measure athletics fan motivations. Besides. the new step was utilized to analyze the relationship between fan motive and cultural individuality. The Conceptual Framework The conceptual model of this survey includes the treatment of two constructs. First. the Fan Motivation Scale and its content will be introduced. Second. the impression of cultural individuality and why it should be correlated with athletics fan motive will be presented. The anterior research ( Wann. 1995 ; Funk. Mahony. Nakazawa. A ; Hirakawa. 2001 ; Bilyeu A ; Wann. 2002 ) identified assorted motivations that could drive fans to go to featuring events. Some of these motivations are related to personal demands ( amusement and fiscal 2 addition ) . societal demands ( adhering with household and group association ) . and psychological demands ( self-esteem and accomplishment ) . In effort to mensurate the motivations of athletics fans. the research workers introduced different graduated tables. These graduated tables comprised different figure of motivations runing from 7 motivations with 16 points to 18 motivations with 54 points. The length of some of the graduated tables was non the lone job. The major concern for old graduated tables is in the content cogency. the extent to which points used in the graduated table accurately represent fan motivations. In fact. all old graduated tables included points that are more related to attitude and satisfaction so motive. The ground for this job is the deficiency of clear definition of athletics fan motive. The current survey is traveling to see athletics fan motive as the grounds that drive persons to back up athletics squads. be loyal to them. purchase team/sport related merchandises. ticker and go to featuring events. In add-on. this survey will use a reappraisal of related literature and the anterior attempt made on fan motive graduated tables to develop valid and dependable steps of athletics fan motive. The proposed Fan Motivation Scale ( FMS ) will mensurate six motivations: societal. amusement. flight. aesthetic. psychological. and amotivation. The societal motivation assesses the extent to which persons participate in featuring events as witnesss because they desire to pass clip with their households ( Gantz. 1981 ; Wann. 1995 ) . Besides. to some persons. group association is an of import motive of being a athletics fan. Sport spectating provides a fan with chances to portion clip with others who enjoy the same activities. A fan may desire to maintain contact with a group of fans and seek safety from a feeling of disaffection ( Branscombe A ; Wann. 1991 ; Smith. 1988 ; Wann. 1995 ) . The amusement motivation includes points that represent the desire of some persons to hold a good clip and bask the exhilaration associated with featuring events. Some fans might bask a athletics because of its amusement value. Sport spectating provides fans with leisure interest activities similar to watching films or telecasting. One advantage of athletics spectating is that few particular accomplishments. if any. are required ( Zillmann. Bryant A ; Sapolsky. 1989 ; Wann. 1995 ) . The flight motivation of athletics fans assesses the desire of athletics fans to get away or diverge from their mundane lives. Attending a clean event gives many people an 3 chance to temporarily bury about their troubling. dissatisfying. or tiring lives ( Smith. 1988 ; Lever A ; Wheeler. 1984 ; Wann. Schrader A ; Wilson. 1999 ) . The aesthetic motivation of athletics fans entreaties to those that are motivated by the aesthetic value of the athletics. Some fans enjoy athleticss because of the competition between extremely skilled jocks. The beauty. grace. and other artistic features make some people enjoy featuring events ( Milne A ; McDonald. 1999 ; Wann. 1995 ) . The psychological motivation is a factor that motivates athleticss fans and gives them a feeling of achievement and accomplishment when the fans’ favourite squad or participant is successful. Sports fans tend to tie in themselves with a successful squad or participant in order to make and prolong a positive self-concept ( Branscombe A ; Wann. 1991 ; Milne A ; McDonald. 1999 ; Sloan. 1989 ) . Amotivation refers to the province of missing an purpose to move. When amotivated. individual’s action lacks intentionality and a sense of personal causing ( Ryan A ; Deci. 2000 ) . Amotivation consequences from non valuing an activity ( Ryan. 1995 ) . non experiencing competent to make it ( Deci. 1975 ) . or non believing it will give a coveted result ( Seligman. 1975 ) . Some persons might travel to feature events and watch athletics games because they have nil else to make. tire. and want to kill clip. These types of grounds had been neglected in old surveies of athletics fan motive. As mentioned earlier. anterior research has examined the relationship between fan motives and other variables such as athletics engagement. squad designation. and some demographic factors of selected athletics fans. However. the cultural individuality of athletics fans has been ignored in the literature. It might be assumed by some research workers that the race factor is adequate representation of an individual’s cultural background. It is. nevertheless. lone portion of the construct. Cultural individuality is defined as â€Å"a procedure of coming to footings with one’s ethnic-racial rank group as a outstanding mention group† ( Smith. 1991. p. 182 ) . Smith ( 1991 ) defined an cultural group as â€Å"a mention group called upon by people who portion a common history and culture† ( p. 181 ) . Harmonizing to Gordon ( 1985 ) . civilization influences our societal criterions. values. knowledges. societal perceptual experiences. ascriptions. feelings. and beginnings of motive. Persons develop their cultural individuality through their societal interaction with others. Through their interactions they begin to see themselves as others view them 4 ( Stryker. 1980 ) . Cultural individuality is viewed as portion of societal individuality and it was defined by Tajfel ( 1981 ) as â€Å"that portion of an individual’s self-concept which derives from his cognition of his rank of a societal group ( or groups ) together with the value and emotional significance attached to that membership† ( p. 255 ) . An cultural group is composed of a figure of persons who portion a sense of group individuality based on their alone civilization. which include values. ethical motives. and assorted imposts. every bit good as shared beginnings. In the larger society. cultural groups tend to keep a sense of peoplehood ( Dublin. 1996 ; Kornblum A ; Janowitz. 1974 ; Portes. 1996 ) . Forty old ages ago. Tumin ( 1964 ) defined an cultural group as â€Å"a societal group which. within a big cultural and societal system. claims or is accorded particular position in footings of complexness of traits which it exhibits or is believed to exhibit† ( p. 123 ) . Distinguishing between cultural groups is non ever simple. Some cultural minorities. such as African Americans. may hold obvious physical differences that set them apart from other cultural groups within the United States. but many biracial persons present an ambiguity because they belong to two or more cultural groups. which makes ethnicity a subjective concept ( Root. 1992 ) . Analyzing cultural individuality is really of import because it is the foundation for what an single believes about himself or herself. Given the significance of cultural individuality. many research workers have been analyzing this concept. Phinney ( 1990 ) reviewed 70 surveies of cultural individuality published between 1972 and 1990. She found that most of the surveies have used one of three theoretical models to analyze cultural individuality. The first model is the societal individuality theory which cultural individuality is considered a constituent of societal individuality. Social theory refers to the demand for an person to be a member of a group that provides him or her with a sense of belonging that contributes to a positive self-concept. The 2nd model is the socialization prospective. The construct of socialization refers to alterations in the cultural attitudes. value. and behaviours that result from interactions between two distinguishable civilizations ( Berry. Trimble. A ; Olmedo. 1986 ) . These sorts of alterations are usually the concern of a group of persons. and how it relates to the dominant or host society. Cultural individuality can be an facet of socialization in which the focal point is on the persons and how they relate to their ain group as a subgroup of the larger society ( Phinney. 1990 ) . The 3rd model is developmental model. where cultural individuality is viewed as a procedure by which people construct their ethnicity. 5 Erikson ( 1968 ) indicated that individuality is the result of a period of geographic expedition and experimentation that usually takes topographic point during adolescence and leads to a determination of committedness in assorted countries. such as business. and faith. This position of cultural individuality suggests age as a factor is strongly related to developing one’s cultural individuality ( Phinney. 1990 ) . Phinney ( 1990 ) mentioned that most surveies have focused on certain constituents of cultural individuality. These constituents include self-identification as a group member. a sense of belonging to the group. attitudes about one’s group rank. and cultural engagement ( societal engagement. cultural patterns and attitudes ) . Self-identification represents the cultural label that one uses for oneself. The ability of kids to label themselves with the right cultural group was the addressed in a survey by Aboud ( 187 ) . Another issue was the relationship between incorrect labeling and hapless self-concept ( Cross. 1978 ) . Adults are expected to cognize their ethnicity but the issue is what label one chooses to utilize for himself or herself. However. some cultural groups have a small pick in what cultural rubric they can utilize for themselves frequently because of their typical tegument colour or civilization ( linguistic communication. frocks. imposts. etc. ) which distinguishes them from other groups. Additionally. some persons have two or more cultural backgrounds and they identify themselves as members of more than one group. Cultural self-identification is an of import but complex constituent of cultural individuality ( Phinney. 1990 ) . The feeling of belonging to one’s ain group is an of import component of cultural individuality. Some research workers have tried to measure the sense of belonging by either inquiring people how strong was their relationship with their groups or how separate they feel from other groups ( Driedger. 1976 ) . Members of every cultural group can hold positive or negative attitudes toward their ain group. Some of the positive attitudes related were pride in and pleasance. satisfaction. and contentment with one’s group ( Phinney. 1990 ) . Negative attitudes include dissatisfaction. displeasure. discontentedness. and a desire to conceal 1s individuality ( Driedger. 1976 ) . Peoples who display no positive attitudes or show negative attitudes can be seen as denying their cultural individuality ( Phinney. 1990 ) . In add-on. the engagement in the societal life and cultural patterns of one’s cultural group is considered a strong index of one’s cultural individuality. The societal and cultural patterns 6 that represent the engagement constituent include linguistic communication. friendly relationship. societal organisations. faith. cultural traditions. and political relations ( Phinney. 1990 ) . Phinney ( 1992 ) developed the Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure ( MEIM ) with the intent of measuring cultural individuality among assorted cultural groups. The graduated table was designed to mensurate three constituents of cultural individuality: avowal and belonging. cultural individuality accomplishment. and cultural behaviours. Roberts. Phinney. Masse. Chen. Roberts. and Romero ( 1999 ) examined the cogency of the MEIM and conducted factor analysis with a big sample. The results suggest that the scale steps two constituents of cultural individuality: cultural individuality hunt and avowal. belonging. and committedness. Cultural individuality hunt refers to a developmental and cognitive constituent. Affirmation. belonging. and commitment represent the affectional constituent. However. the graduated table has been proven to be a valid and dependable measuring and it will be used in the context of this survey. More treatment of the graduated table is provided in the method subdivision. Research workers have indicated that positive relationships do be between cultural individuality and self-esteem. self-concept. psychological wellbeing. accomplishment. and satisfaction ( Phinney. 1992 ; Roberts et Al. . 1999 ; Delworth. 1989 ) . However. it is the intent of this survey to analyze the relationship between cultural individuality and motives of athletics fans. Harmonizing to Phinney ( 1990 ) some surveies have used athletics as a cultural point to mensurate cultural individuality. Pons. Laroche. Nyeck. and Perreault ( 2001 ) indicated that the pick of a peculiar sporting event represents a strong cultural significance for the person. Some cultural groups tend to place with a specific athletics. for illustration. association football in the Italian community and hockey among the Gallic Canadian. Pons et Al. . ( 2001 ) stated â€Å"ethnic groups do non all react to featuring events in the same manner ; they differ in the agencies and the gait of their integrating into the host culture† ( p. 238 ) . African American consumers tend to go to historically Black college/university athleticss more often than they did any other athletics. The degree of cultural designation of African American fans has important affect on their attending frequence to historically Black college/university athleticss ( Armstrong. 2002 ) . Furthermore. old surveies showed differences in motive between African American and European American athletics fans based on ethnicity ( Wann. Bilyeu. Brennan. Osborn. A ; Gambouras. 1999 ; Bilyeu A ; Wann. 2002 ; Armstrong. 2002 ) . 7à ¾ Therefore. it is expected that there is a relationship between athletics fans’ motive and cultural individuality. Research Hypotheses H1: Cultural individuality is positively related to feature fan motives. H2: There is a difference between African American and European American in their cultural individuality. Operational Definitions Ethnic Identity: â€Å"part of an individual’s self-concept that derives from his or her cognition of rank in a societal group ( or groups ) together with the value and emotional significance attached to that membership† ( Phinney. 1992. p. 156 ) . Sport fan: refers to person who is enthusiastic about a peculiar athletics squad or jock ( Wann. 1995 ) . Sport fan motive: refers to the grounds that drive persons to back up athletics squads. be loyal to them. purchase team/sport related merchandises. ticker and go to featuring events. Boundary lines This survey is delimitated to: 1. Investigate the cultural individuality and motives of athletics fans in general. For that ground. no specific group of fans ( i. e. . hoops fans. football fans ) was examined. 2. The pupil at Florida State University ( FSU ) and Florida Agriculture and Mechanical University ( FAMU ) . hence. the findings can non be generalized to populations other than the population from which the sample was drawn. 8 Limitations This survey is limited to the followers: 1. The result of this survey depends on the participants’ honestness and cooperation in replying the inquiries. 2. Due to the nature of this survey as self-administrated studies. the researcher’s entree is limited to the categories gained via permission to go to and run into. Premises This survey is based on the undermentioned premises: 1. The studies used in this survey are clear and apprehensible for the participants. 2. The participants will reply the inquiries candidly and accurately. 3. The studies are valid and dependable. Significance of the Study The athletics sellers are in a high competition within the athletics industry and besides with outside rivals. Young coevalss are attracted through engineering to new types of amusement such as computer/video games and the X-Games. â€Å"These new amusement options have already attracted a important sum of attending from the so -called X-generation† ( Kwon A ; Trail. 2003. p. 1 ) . Therefore. athletics sellers should be concern about the hereafter of the athletics industry. In order for athletics sellers to keep their consumer base and to pull immature coevals. they should research and analyze the devouring behaviour of athletics fans and the factors that might act upon their behaviour. Harmonizing to Gramann and Allison ( 1999 ) . â€Å"the addition in the cultural diverseness of North America is one of the most powerful demographic forces determining U. S. and Canadian society† ( p. 283 ) . Therefore. analyzing cultural individuality as an of import societal feature of athletics fans is of import to feature sellers. The importance of analyzing cultural groups among athletics fans is reflected by the increasing per centum of minority engagement in professional athletics. particularly African American. African American jocks represent 25 to 75 per centum of jocks on the rolls for the three popular athleticss ( baseball. hoops. football ) ( Gano-Overway A ; Duda. 2001 ) . 9 The end of this survey was to present a new step of fan motive which will help practicians in the athletics industry to understanding the drive factors for athletics fans to go to featuring events. support athletics squads. or purchase team/sport related merchandises. Besides. the relationship between motives and cultural individuality of athletics fans was examined. The result of the survey should supply practicians with valuable information to help them in understanding the assorted motivations of athletics fans based on their cultural individuality. Therefore. athletics sellers should be able to better their programs and schemes to keep their fan base and carry through the desires for their mark market. 10 Chapter 2 LITERATURE REVIEW The intent of this chapter is to reexamine the literature on cultural individuality and motive of athletics fans. It should be noted that to day of the month. no research has combined and analyzed the interaction of the two identified variables. As such. the first subdivision of this chapter focuses on the research that has been done on the cultural individuality of athletics fans. The 2nd subdivision discusses motivations of athletics fans every bit good as graduated tables that have been used to measure these motivations. Cultural Identity and Sport Fans Ethnicity as societal and cultural feature of athletics fans has been ignored in the literature although the race factor. which is the physical facet of ethnicity. has been utilized for comparing between cultural groups. However. Armstrong ( 2002 ) examined the influence of cultural designation on Black consumers’ attending at historically Black college/university ( HBCU ) athleticss. To measure cultural designation. Armstrong used a self-report step in which participants were asked to place their cultural group based on cultural classs ( Black/African American. Caucasic. Latino. Asiatic. and â€Å"other† ) and to rate the strength of their designation with their cultural group on a graduated table from 1 ( weak ) to 5 ( really strong ) . The hypothesis was that the designation of Black consumers with their cultural group would hold a important influence on their attending frequence at HBCU athletics events. The findings offered support for the hypothesis bespeaking a positive relationship between cultural designation and attending frequence. In another survey. Armstrong ( 2000 ) examined the influence of cultural designation on African American students’ processing of persuasive athletics communications ( i. e. . advertizement. promotional messages. developmental runs. and proclamations ) . The cultural designation of the respondents was measured utilizing a 13-item graduated table developed by Whittler. Calatone. and Young ( 1991 ) . The scale buttockss two major factors of cultural designation ( cross-race attractive force and political and societal 11 dealingss among Blacks ) . The result of the survey revealed that cultural designation has an consequence on participants’ reaction to racial heuristics in the communicating. African American consumers are more likely to hold a positive reaction to a persuasive communicating if the message were culturally relevant and delivered by a Black interpreter. Pons et Al. ( 2001 ) looked at the impact cultural individuality could hold on the ingestion behaviour and orientation of athletics consumers. They measured linguistic communication ( 3 points ) . faith ( 3 points ) . and societal engagement with one’s ain cultural group ( 6 points ) as three dimensions of cultural individuality. The orientation of athletics consumers has three dimensions. The first dimension refers to featuring events as a supplier of esthesiss in which consumers have an emotional fond regard to the event or the merchandise. The 2nd dimension represents individuals’ demand to understand the sporting event. which lead to better grasp for the event. The 3rd dimension of orientation toward featuring event refers to the socialisation chances presented for athletics consumers. The ingestion behaviours include purchase of featuring good. tickets. and clip devoted to featuring events. The consequences offered support for the thought that cultural individuality has a positive impact on the ingestion and orientation of athletics consumers. In respect to the race of athletics consumers as portion of their ethnicity. research workers have found a difference between Blacks and White persons refering their athletics engagement ( Spreitzer A ; Snyder. 1990 ) . Sport engagement included seven dimensions â€Å"watching athleticss on telecasting. listening to feature on the wireless. reading the athletics pages of the newspaper. watching/listening to athleticss intelligence on radio/television. reading athleticss books. reading athleticss magazines. and speaking about athleticss with friends† ( Spreitzer A ; Snyder. 1990. p. 51 ) . The findings revealed important consequence of race on athletics engagement regardless of respondents’ societal background features ( i. e. . age. sex. instruction. income. town size ) . Blacks tend to be more involved in athletics than White persons. The writers argued that the findings reflect a typical subculture within the black community. Rudman ( 1986 ) examined the relationship between race. societal construction. and sport orientations. The chief end of the survey was to see whether factors that affect athletics orientations are race-dependant. The consequences showed Blacks to be more likely than White persons to go vicariously involved in athletics results and to integrate athletics into their day-to-day 12 lives. Based on the overall analyses. the writer argued that societal and economic conditions provide a better account of differences in athletics orientations. He used the term â€Å"culture of poverty† to bespeak that socioeconomic places are more likely to do boor inkinesss and peasant Whites see sport as an chance to heighten societal prestigiousness and economic place. At the college degree. Armstrong ( 2001 ) examined cultural minority students’ ingestion of college athletics events. The cultural minorities included African Americans. Asians. Hispanics. and â€Å"Others† . She looked at the grade of cultural minority students’ involvement in athletics spectating. the frequence in which they attend university sponsored sport events. and the factors that influence their determination to go to campus athletics events. Eight factors were tested to see their influence on the students’ attending. The factors are the monetary value of the tickets. academic committedness. important others. friends. watching the event on telecasting. the option to pass money on other things. non cognizing when tickets are available. the quality of the opposition. The factors identified had no important influence on students’ attending. The findings indicate that cultural minority pupils by and large had a favourable attitude towards athletics spectating. However. about 44 % of the pupil stated that they neer attend a campus athletics event. 41 % stated that they rarely attended. and 15 % have attended frequently. The writer contended that minority pupils had a favourable attitude toward athletics spectating but they neer or rarely attend athletics events on campus because they view these events as directed to a specific group ( i. e. . dominant cultural group ) . For minority pupils to be motivated to go to. the athletics event has to be socially and culturally relevant to the students’ cultural background. In professional athletics. Zhang. Pease. Hui. A ; Michaud ( 1995 ) and Zhang. Pease. Smith. Lee. Lam. A ; Jambor ( 1997 ) indicated that factors such as game publicities. comfortss. and schedule convenience influenced cultural minorities’ attending otherwise and more significantly than they did Whites’ . Therefore. athletics sellers should stress the sociocultural factors ( i. e. . offering different cultural nutrients at the grant stands. playing different cultural music. doing proclamation in different linguistic communications ) in advancing athletics ingestion of cultural minority consumers ( Armstrong. 2001 ; Hofacre A ; Burman. 1992 ; McCarthy A ; Stillman. 1998 ) . 13 In a direct connexion to the current probe. old surveies have found differences on the motives of athletics fans based on ethnicity. Wann. Bilyeu. Brennan. Osborn. A ; Gambouras ( 1999 ) investigated the relationship between athletics fans’ motive and race. A sample of 65 Euro-Americans and 32 African Americans completed the Sport Fan Motivation Scale ( SFMS ) . The SFMS. developed by Wann ( 1995 ) . includes eight motivational factors ( eustress. self-esteem benefit. recreation from mundane life. amusement value. economic value. aesthetic value. necessitate for association. and household demands ) . The findings indicated that Euro-Americans reported higher motive than African Americans. The writers argued that certain motivations might be applicable to merely a subset of races. In a recent survey. Bilyeu and Wann ( 2002 ) examined the racial differences in athletics fan motive between African Americans and European Americans. First. 50 African American participants completed a demographic questionnaire and an interview with the research worker to discourse their motivations for being a athletics fan. Second. the motivations discovered from the interviews were sent to African American psychologists and sociologists for proof. Third. the new motivations were added to the SFMS. so the African American and European American participants were asked to finish the SFMS. The findings suggested that three new factors be added to the SFMS: â€Å"representation ( e. g. . people of the same background ) . similarity ( e. g. . people they have things in common with ) . and support/perceived greater equality ( e. g. . people they want to win ) † ( Bilyeu A ; Wann. 2002. p. 93 ) . Armstrong ( 2002 ) indicated that old probes of motive for athletics ingestion were non applicable to Blacken consumers because the samples used in these probes were preponderantly White. Therefore. she added a cultural association motivation to the SFMS. developed by Wann ( 1995 ) . and administered it to a sample of lone Black consumers of athletics. The findings supported the hypotheses that cultural association is a feasible motivation for Black’s athletics ingestion. In add-on. the factor construction of the SFMS with the inclusion of the cultural association motivation differed from old surveies ( Wann. 1995 ; Wann. Schrader. A ; Wilson. 1999 ) . Therefore. the Black Consumer’ Sport Motivation Scale ( BCSMS ) was introduced including the undermentioned factors: eustress. group diversion. aesthetics. cultural association. group amusement. flight. and 14 personal ( economic/psychological ) investing. At the decision of the survey. the writer stated. â€Å"behaviors and motivations related to feature ingestion may besides be influenced by the societal and psychological manifestations of culture† ( Armstrong. 2002. p. 329 ) . In drumhead. although research on cultural individuality for athletics fans is really limited. a strong relationship was found between athletics consumers’ cultural individuality and athletics ingestion and orientation. Besides. the differences found on the motives for athletics fans based on ethnicity. should bespeak a strong relationship between athletics fans’ motive and cultural individuality. However. it is the end of this probe to analyze this relationship.

Not eassay ...just 2 quitiins phsics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Not eassay ...just 2 quitiins phsics - Essay Example s defect (Podgorsak 17), in a nucleus comes about due to the fact that under normal convection, the mas of the protons and nucleons is assigned a rounded off value, 1, which is not the actual mass of the neutrons nor the protons. The mass of a proton is equal to 1.00728 u, where u represents the atomic mass unit (amu), whereas that of a neutron is equal to 1.00866 u. Summation of the masses in the nucleus, mass of individual nucleons in the nucleus, should represent the actual mass, but the measurable mass is always less. This inequality results to a phenomenon in the atomic properties referred to as the mass defect. The values obtained from the calculations above are as expected, with knowledge of the atomic structure and the expected differences in the atomic radius of the atoms; my deduction was that the larger the radius of the atom, the higher the binding energy needed to hold the atom together. The difference in the binding energy between Fe56 and Ra226 is associated to the difference in the atomic weight of the atoms. The atom that has a higher number of nucleons requires higher energy to keep the nucleus at its short rage. From the calculations of the binding energy, the higher the number of nucleons in the nucleus, particularly the neutron, results to a higher difference in the mass defect, which translates to high values of the binding energy. From the definition of biding energy as the energy that holds the nucleons together to form the nucleus, the k shell electron in the tungsten experiencing 69.5 KeV is at the stable element state. Tungsten (W74) is made up of 74 protons or electrons and 110 neutrons. The atomic mass of the atom is 183.84 u, but by using the nucleons, we can get the mass defect: From the bidding energy calculated above, the binding energy to the K shell electron is a mere fraction of the total biding energy by the nucleus. The biding energy that the electron may be experiencing may be 69.5 KeV, which is the energy needed to

Business & Project Creation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

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Individuals' Ethical Place in World Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Individuals' Ethical Place in World - Essay Example I believe that people are inherently good but there are instances where they make wrong choices that sometimes considered to be unethical. Some are just too aggressive to realize their goals and intended place in their lives that sometimes they compromise ethics and propriety. Others have a distorted sense of getting to succeed that they think that in order to succeed, they have to bend morals and ethics. Most of them see life as a competition, to get ahead of others and subscribe to social Darwinism that it is the fittest who will survive and get ahead in life. Often however, goals and objectives that were reached by bending ethics and propriety did not yield any meaning but only trouble and empty victory. We have already seen those big time unethical practices that ended in trouble. We saw Enron, Worldcom executives ending in scandals and jails and for sure, those people who were scandalized and jailed were just in pursuit of looking their place in this world albeit unethically. Th us, to truly find a rightful place that is meaningful and happy, one has to pursue his or her own place in the world ethically. Finding our own place in the world through ethical means meant that we follow the existing laws, norm and sense of propriety. These three goes together. It is because not all actions or choices that are permitted by law do not mean ethical and proper. For example, It may be legally permissible for business just to pass the regulatory inspection but that does not necessarily mean that the products a company produces or the workplace and wage it provides to its employees are totally ethical in a sense that it produces a quality product, pays and treats its employees well. Producing substandard products, paying employees with basement minimum wages and non-conducive workplace may be pass regulatory checks but not necessarily ethical. The same is true with norms because not all acts or actions that are deemed acceptable do not mean legal or ethical. For example , it may be acceptable for business to cheat for profit or survival because it is thought to be amoral but it does not necessarily mean legal or ethical. Lastly, the best guide to find our place in our world is through the compass of ethics because it considers all factors including legal, norm, societal and even moral aspects of what is right and wrong. Finding a place in a world through ethical means is the one that gives us meaning the most not to mention that it does not give us any trouble. And since being our ethical place in the world did not give us any trouble in the process of achieving it nor we created enemies in getting there, it is more durable and lasting and a place that truly made our aspiration and effort worthwhile. Finding our ethical place in the world may not be easy. The path is littered with temptation and shortcuts that often, the challenges we encounter makes us give in to temptation and shortcut. Getting to our ethical place in the world requires strong ch aracter and upright consciousness to chose and do what is right, ethical and moral and these decisions may not be easy and popular. But it can be done. We may fall or fail in the process and that place may seem farther because we are going there the right way. There are people who have done it albeit they are outnumbered by those who took shortcuts but it gives us a reason, inspiration or maybe a consolation that it is not impossible to find

Rumination Disorder: Causes, Epidemiology and Treatment

Rumination Disorder: Causes, Epidemiology and Treatment Rumination disorder is an eating disorder whereby an infant or toddler brings back up and re-chews food that was already swallowed and digested. This is known as regurgitation. In most cases, the re-chewed food is then swallowed again; but occasionally, the child will spit it out. For this to be considered a disorder, the behaviour must have occurred to a child who had been eating normally previously, and it must occur frequently for atleast a month. The behaviour may occur during feeding or right after eating. What Are the Symptoms of Rumination Disorder in Babies and Kids? Symptoms of rumination disorder in infants and toddlers may include (1) repeated regurgitation of food (2) repeated re-chewing of food (3) weight loss (4) repeated stomach aches (5) raw and chapped lips. Infants, in addition, may make unusual movements such as straining and arching the back, holding the head back, tightening abdominal muscles and making sucking movements with the mouth. These movements could suggest that the infant is trying to bring back up the partially digested food. What Causes Rumination Disorder? The exact cause of rumination disorder is unknown although there several speculation. According to () some factors that may contribute to this disorder are those that are physical. Physical illness or stress may trigger the behaviour. It may be a way for the child to get attention; it has been found that neglect from the primary care giver may cause the child to engage in self comfort.It has been found that rumination may occur in a state of self relaxation , self absorption and self pleasure. It appears to have a self soothing or self stimulating function. The infant gets some satisfaction from this. For the first four to six months of an infants life, breast milk or an alternative formula is a baby’s source of energy and nutrients (Santrock, 2011). it has been found that breast fed infants have lower respitory tract infections, they are less likely to develop otitis media (a middle ear infection) and breast fed infants have fewer gastrointestinal infections (Santrock, 2011). According to (Chial, Camilleri, Williams, Litzinger, Perrault, 2003) rumination is a functional gastrointestinal infection. This suggests that there is a possibility that children who develop this disorder may have had a lack of breast feeding as an infant which further elaborates that neglect from the primary caregiver is vital. Rumination is common in disorders such as bulimia nervosa. It is a learned disorder and comes from a manifestation of rejection. http://www.webmd.com/children/guide/eating-disorders-in-children-rumination-disorder?page=3 Epidemiology It is difficult to know exactly how many people are affected by this disorder mainly because most cases are not reported. Children tend to outgrow it and as they grow into the adolescent stages and adulthood, they become embarrassed by it and it often happens in secret. Rumination disorder is generally uncommon. Rumination disorder occurs often in infants between the ages of three and twelve months as well as in children with cognitive impairments. It may occur slightly more often in boys than in girls, but few studies of the disorder exist to confirm this. (webmd) For the purpose of this paper, the South African context will be put into consideration. It is important to remember that reality is socially constructed. South Africa is a diversified country with many cultures. Amongst many of the African cultures, western culture is often overlooked and shunned upon. It is difficult to change the minds of others and it would be unethical for an â€Å"outsider† to come and talk against their belief systems. When there is behaviour that is unusual, it is common for the average traditional African woman or man to put their trust in the customary traditional healer. People tend to keep their parental and ancestral roots, this is quite common more often in the homelands where majority of the financially deprived stay; even though sometimes it happens that those who move to the city to look for jobs may adopt new ways of thinking but still truly remaining to their roots. Because of these strong traditional beliefs, primary caregivers may opt for traditional healers than westernised medical attention. It is also much easier to go to a traditional healer than it is finding a good clinic or good health care facility. The social and economic pressures make it hard for children to get the right kind of medical attention. It is common for these primary caregivers to believe it is witch craft, it is something they learn. When something cannot be explained, it is easier to put blame in witchcraft. —often with grandparents staying in rural areas and the younger people moving to the cities in search of employment, better education, and health care. The effects of disrupted bonds are manifold. In our field, the geographical separation between young mothers and the maternal grandmothers has particularly far reaching consequences. We have called our Service theMdlezana Centre. This is a Xhosa word depicting the early bond between mother and child, when they are still one unit—equivalent to the Winnicottian term of the state of primary maternal preoccupation. Infant Mental Health was a new concept in 1995, but it took root in the city of Cape Town immediately. There are no problems in obtaining referrals to the Rondebosch pillar —in fact, at times we are inundated, and can barely cope with the workload. In Khayelitsha, the situation is different and the population was initially hard to reach. There are various reasons for this: In a community where unemployment is unimaginably high, where families are disrupted, where there is often no food, the emotional life of the infant is not a priority. Mothers, who are the main caregivers (I have only seen fathers on two occasions in the past five years) are often depressed and suffer in silence. They have a helplessness that is real and in a way adaptive in the sense that the great majority of women have no choice, but to cope and make do with what they have. They bear their fate stoically and will not spontaneously open up. Then there are cultural factors in that one does not easily share with strangers one’s intimate family problems. There is a sense of privacy and possibly shame and thus problems are often borne silently. A visit to a Traditional Healer is for many a more familiar option. I shall return to this point shortly. The infants themselves are mostly not a problem— they are generally quiet and seemingly content—this is an observation that all western visitors who come with me to the clinic make. The wait is often long, but the noise level low and there is immense patience, even in the babies and toddlers. It is only the physically obvious, such as delayed milestones, that will readily be seen as a reason for a consultation. On a diagnostic level the infants fall into three broad categories: developmental delay, failure to thrive, and increasingly, depression. When a condition sets in after birth, then the presence of evil spirits or bewitchment is  very much in the foreground. For whatever individual reason, the protection of the  ancestors has been withdrawn and the child has become exposed to forces of evil, the  impundulu. The muthiis said to drive out the evil  spirit or to strengthen and protect the child against it. Mostly these interventions are  harmless from a medical perspective —however, there are some mixtures which, when  ingested, can cause gastrointestinal symptoms. Operations and anesthetics are at times viewed with great fear. This may have to do  with a giving up of the child to be put to sleep —which, in effect, could mean a kind  of death. The father of one ill infant whom we saw and who required surgery spoke  about â€Å"sacrificing† his child. The healer who was involved in this case also said to the  parents that surgery would interfere with the workings of themuthihe was using. The  end result was that the child did not receive the operation in time and died. A working alliance with traditional healers is being established with the recent founding  of the Traditional Healers’ Association. It is hoped that with collaborating with the traditional  healers in diagnosis and treatment gaps can be bridged and unnecessary suffering be prevented. I will end this section by giving a brief case illustration. How Is Rumination Disorder Diagnosed in Infants and Children? The diagnosis of rumination syndrome is based upon the characteristic symptoms and the absence of signs of disease. Although diagnostic criteria (symptombased, Rome II) for childhood functional gastrointestinal disorders have been developed, such criteria for children and adolescents with rumination syndrome have not been defined. The lack of formal criteria for diagnosing rumination syndrome in children and adolescents likely contributes to the lack of awareness of the condition and to the difficulty in making the diagnosis. We anticipate that such criteria will be developed in the future. How Is Rumination Disorder Treated in Children? Rumination disorder is a voluntary, learned behaviour which patients are frequently unaware. As infants grow older, clinical features of regurgitation are similar to those of bulimia nervosa. Before one can be diagnosed it has been found that individuals with this disorder undergo several medical interventions and experience prolonged symptoms before a diagnosis is made. (Chial, La Crosse, Camilleri, Bean, 2009) One important aspect in the history is the timing of the regurgitation. Diaphragmatic breathing has been shown to be clinically beneficial in rumination syndrome; although this type of treatment can only take place starting from ages where toddlers can understand. According to (Chiktara, van Tilburg, Whitehead, Tall, 2006) this method is useful to treat children as young as six years of age. Patients should be encouraged to practice diaphragmatic breathing midway through the meal or after meals for three different 5 min periods of inactivity with 10 min in between periods. They should also repeat this plan after each episode of regurgitation. The goal is for diaphragmatic breathing to occur unconsciously during events that may incur regurgitation. Treatment of rumination disorder mainly focuses on changing the childs behaviour. Several approaches may be used, including:Continue reading below Changing the childs posture during and right after eating Encouraging more interaction between mother and child during feeding; giving the child more attention Reducing distractions during feeding Making feeding a more relaxing and pleasurable experience Distracting the child when he or she begins the rumination behavior Aversive conditioning, which involves placing something sour or bad-tasting on the childs tongue when he or she begins to vomit Psychotherapy for the mother and/or family may be helpful to improve communication and address any negative feelings toward the child due to the behavior. There are no medications used to treat rumination disorder. What Complications Are Associated With Rumination Disorder? Among the many potential complications associated with untreated rumination disorder in infants and children are: Malnutrition Lowered resistance to infections and diseases Failure to grow and thrive Weight loss Stomach diseases such as ulcers Dehydration Bad breath and tooth decay Aspiration pneumonia and other respiratory problems (from vomit that is breathed into the lungs) Choking Death What Is the Outlook for Children With Rumination Disorder? In most cases, infants and young children with rumination disorder will outgrow the behavior and return to eating normally. For older children, this disorder can continue for months. Can Rumination Disorder Be Prevented in Infants and Children? There is no known way to prevent rumination disorder in infants and children. However, careful attention to a childs eating habits may help catch the disorder before serious complications can occur. (culture and psychiatry journal) The culture of the patient In addition to individual factors—such as level of education, medical knowledge, and personal life experiences—culture will contribute to the patient’s understanding of illness, perception and presentation of symptoms and problems, and reaction and adjustment to illness. The patient’s expectations of the physician, motivation for treatment, and compliance with treatment recommendations are also influenced by culture.

Travel Writing: Romantics to Newspaper :: Analysis Literature Traveling Essays Papers

Travel Writing: Romantics to Newspaper After reading various works from Romantic travel writers such as Gilpin, Wordsworth, Goethe and others, I was interested in how their writings' conventions have changed when a different medium is used. Every Saturday the local newspaper, The Edmonton Journal, has a section that is strictly dedicated to travel destinations and topics pertaining to travel. Appropriately named "Travel," this section describes exotic locations for tourist and travelers. Its articles contrast the Romantics' description of the environment by having less emphasis on the picturesque and sublime, more focus on historical background, and greater detail in the lives of people living there. I believe that these differences are credited largely to one factor; the writing's medium influences what is being stressed as the purpose of the writer is different. Travel articles focus largely on describing nature only in terms of basic description. When referencing a scene with specific characteristics (such as cliffs, waterfalls or mountains) the Romantic writer describes the scene as if the reader has very little experience or expectation for what the scene should look like. The result is often elaborate description after elaborate description. Newspaper travel sections do not concern themselves with such sensory description near the same extent for a number of reasons. The newspaper focuses less on creating imagery for the reader because of the increase in availability to travel, images of the picturesque and sublime on television and movies, and the presence of photographs physically next to the text. 1. Nearly every article, within this section, is accompanied by a large photograph showing the landscape. By presenting the writers' description of the land next to the photograph, the article intrinsically promotes a comparison by the reader, contrasting the colourful photograph with the writer's words. If the photograph presents a landscape different from the vivid description of the travel writer (which inevitably happens with readers' mental constructs) the reader will find it hard to trust the writer in the accuracy of description. The writer wisely follows the saying that a "picture says a thousand words" and is better off letting the picture do the talking. After all, the journalist has less space and more constrictions than the novelist does. 2. The dominant concern for the travel journalist is conveying what they want in a limited space. The journalist does not have space to elaborately describe every cliff, river or valley. It is, therefore, up to the writer to assume that, with the addition of the given photographs, the reader would be able to visualize a serene waterfall or placid lake.

Background & The Evolution of the Internet

The Internet has undergone explosive growth since the first connections were established in 1969. This growth has necessitated an extremely large system scale-up that has required new developments in the technology of information transfer. These new developments allow simplified solutions to the problem of how to reliably get information from point A to point B. Unfortunately, the rapid pace of the required technological advancement has not allowed for optimal solutions to the scale-up problem.Rather, these solutions appear to have been the most convenient and practical at the time. Thus, the information transfer technology of today’s internet does not guarantee the ‘best path’ for data transmission. The definition of the best path may mean the most cost effective or the fastest path or some path based on optimization of multiple protocols, but the current technology used in the internet cannot guarantee that the best path for data transmission will be chosen. The result is a reduction in economic and system resource efficiency. The Evolution of the InternetThe Internet has become integrated into the economic, technological and security infrastructure of virtually every country in the world. However, the internet had quite a humble beginning. It was originally designed as a back-up military communications network (MILNET) and as a university research communications network (National Science Foundation Network, NFSNET / Advanced Research Projects Agency Network, ARPANET). The original technology developed for these limited systems was not designed for the massive scale-up that has occurred since inception.Moreover, the original design of the internet system was based on the sharing of resources. The recent applications of the internet for commerce and proprietary information transfer processes make resource sharing an undesirable aspect. A more recent development is resource usage based on policies limiting what part of the internet can use a specific service or data transmission line. An Introduction to Networks and Routing What is a network? A network is a group of computers linked together by transmission lines that allow communication between the computers.Some of these computers are the equipment used by people on their desktop. Other computers in the network are computers that are designed only to direct traffic on the network or between different networks. Computer scientists often think of networks as large graphs with lines used to connect dots. The dots are called nodes and correspond to computers and the lines correspond to the transmission lines that connect the computers. The Internet is a giant network of smaller networks, called autonomous systems, that allows computers to be connected around the globe.What is routing? The process of transmitting information from a source computer to a destination computer is called routing. The way this is done can greatly effect how quickly the information is transmitte d between the two computers. What is a router? A router is a computer with more than one connection to the rest of the network that is programmed to choose which transmission lines to send information. Some routers or designed to route information between networks, as on the Internet, while other routers work to route information between computers on the same network.How do routers route? In order for routers to choose the best route (or path) from the source computer to the destination computer, it is necessary that the routers communicate with each other about what computers and networks they are connected to and the routes that can be used to reach these computers and networks. Often these routes must go through other routers. What are advertisements? Advertisements are the messages sent between routers to communicate information about routes to reach each destination. What is convergence?Convergence occurs on the network or internet when all the routers know all the routes to al l the destinations. The time required for all the routers to agree on the state of the network, the network topology, is known as the convergence time. When convergence does not occur, then data can be transmitted to a router which does not know how to get to a destination and this data is then lost. This is called a black hole. It is also possible that the data can be passed around a set of routers continuously without getting to the destination. This is called a routing loop. What is a data packet?When a large message is being transmitted, the message will probably be broken up into smaller messages called data packets, and these data packets may not all be sent by the same path across the Internet, although they will hopefully all reach the same destination What is a metric? A routing metric is a measure associated with a particular path between a source and a destination used by the router to decide what path is the best path. Typical metrics used by routing algorithms include p ath length, bandwidth, load, reliability, delay (or latency) and communication cost.Path length is a geometric measure of how long the transmission lines are. Bandwidth is used to describe the available transmission rate (bps) of a given section the possible transmission path. The load is the data packet transmission per unit time. The reliability of a data transmission path is essentially the number of errors per unit time. The delay in data transmission along a certain path is due to a combination of the metrics that have already been discussed, including geometric length of the transmission lines, bandwidth, and data traffic congestion.The communication cost is essentially the commercial cost of data transmission along a certain transmission line. What is a router protocol? A router protocol is the way the router is programmed to choose the best path for data transmission and communicate with other routers. This algorithm will consider path metrics associated with each path in a way defined by the by the manager of each AS. What is an internet address? In order for routers to identify the destination of a data transmission, every destination must have an address.The internet protocol (IP) method of addressing destinations uses a series of digits separated by dots. An example of an Internet address is 227. 130. 107. 5. Each of the 4 numbers separated by a dot has a value between 0 and 255. This range of values is set from the amount of computer memory designated for addressing at the beginning of the internet. The internet addressing scheme is similar to a scheme for international telephone calls. There is a ‘country code’ which is a fixed number for each country, and then there are other numbers which change on the phone number to refer to specific locations within the country.The numbers on the IP address for a network on the internet correspond to what would be the country code on an international phone number are referred to as ‘prefix ’. The other numbers on the IP address change to refer to individual computers on that particular network. A ‘netmask’ can also be used to specify which numbers on the IP address for a given network are fixed and which ones can be changed. A netmask is a series on ones and zeroes that can be put over the IP address. The part of the IP address under the ones is fixed as a network address.The part of the IP address under the zeros can be changed to indicate specific computers on the network. What is a Domain Name System (DNS), the domain name and the Uniform Resource Locator (URL)? The DNS is a combination of computer hardware and software that can rapidly match the text specification of an IP address, like www. helpmegetoutofthis. com, to an IP address. The part, helpmegetoutofthis. com, is called the domain name. The whole text, www. helpmegetoutofthis. com, is called the Uniform Resource Locator (URL).When you send an e-mail or use the Internet, you use the doma in name and the URL to locate specific sites. This allows people to type in the text name, or domain name, of an internet site into the Netscape browser instead of trying to remember the numerical IP address. The DNS automatically matches the text name to the IP address for the user when the transmission request is submitted. What are servers and clients? All of the computers on the Internet are classified as either servers or clients. The computers that provide services to other computers are called servers.The computers that connect to servers to use the services are called clients. Examples of servers are Web servers, e-mail servers, DNS servers and FTP servers. The computers used at the desktop are generally clients. How the internet works. Although the details of routing and software are complex, the operation of the internet from the users’ perspective is fairly straight forward. As an example of what happens when the Internet is used, consider that you type the URL www . helpmegetoutofthis. com into the Netscape browser.The browser contacts a DNS server to get the IP address. A DNS server would start its search for an IP address. If it finds the IP address for the site, then it returns the IP address to the browser, which then contacts the server for www. helpmegetoutofthis. com, which then transmits the web page to your computer and browser so you can view it. The user is not aware that of the operation of an infrastructure of routers and transmission lines behind this action of retrieving a web page and transmitting the data from one computer to another.The infrastructure of the internet can be seen as a massive array of data relay nodes (routers) interconnected by data transmission lines, where each node can service multiple transmission lines. In the general case where information must be sent across several nodes before being received, there will be many possible pathways over which this transmission might occur. The routers serve to find a p ath for the data transmission to occur. The routing of a file or data packets of a file is either be done by the technique of source routing or the technique of destination routing.In source routing, the path the data transmission will follow id specified at the source of the transmission, while destination routing is controlled by the routers along the path. In the modern internet, almost all routing is done by destination routing because of security issues associated with source routing. Thus, the routers must be programmed with protocols that allow a reasonable, perhaps optimum, path choice for each data packet. For the routers to choose an optimum path also requires that the interconnected routers communicate information concerning local transmission line metrics.Router communication is thus itself a massive information transfer process, given that there is more than 100,000 networks and millions of hosts on the Internet. When viewing the enormity of the problem, it is perhaps e asier to understand why engineers have accepted a sub-optimal solution to the problem of efficiency in data transfer on the Internet. When initially confronting a problem, the practical engineering approach is to simplify the problem to the point where a working solution can be obtained and then refine that solution once the system is functional.Some of the simplifying assumptions used by engineers for the current internet data transmission system include 1) A transmission line is never over capacity and is always available as a path choice. 2) The performance of the router and transmission line does not depend on the amount of traffic. These two assumptions do simplify the problem of path choice considerably because now all the transmission lines and nodes may be considered equal in capacity and performance completely independent of traffic. As such, it is a much simpler optimization problem consisting of finding the route with the shortest path length.To simplify the problem even further, another assumption is made: 3) Consider that an â€Å"Autonomous System† (AS), is a small internet inside the Internet. An AS is generally considered to be a sub-network of an Internet with a common administrative authority and is regulated by a specific set of administrative guidelines. It is assumed that every AS is the same and provides the same performance. The problem of Internet routing can now be broken down into the simpler problem of selecting optimum paths inside the AS and then considering the optimum paths between the AS.Since there are ‘only’ around 15,000 active AS’s on the Internet, the overall problem is reduced to finding the best route over 15,000 AS nodes, and then the much simpler problem of finding the best route through each AS. There is an important (to this thesis) set of protocols which control the exchange of routing information between the AS’s. The sort of routers in an AS which communicates with the rest of the internet and other AS’s are called border routers. Border routers are controlled by a set of programming instructions known as Border Gateway Protocol, BGP.A more detailed discussion of computer networking principals and the Internet facts can be found in e. g. [7]. An Introduction to Router Protocols. Routers are computers connected to multiple networks and programmed to control the data transmission between the networks. Usually, there are multiple paths that are possible for transmission of data between two points on the Internet. The routers involved in the transmission between two points can be programmed to choose the ‘best path’ based on some metric. The ‘protocols’ used to determine the path for data transmission are routing algorithms.Typical metrics used by routing algorithms include path length, bandwidth, load, reliability, delay (or latency) and communication cost. Path length. Path length is a geometric measure of how long the transmiss ion lines are. The routers can be programmed to assign weights to each transmission line proportional to the length of the line or each network node. The path length is then the sum of the weights of the nodes, lines or lines plus nodes along the possible transmission path. Bandwidth. Bandwidth is used to describe the available transmission rate (bps) of a given section the possible transmission path.An open 64 kbps line would not generally be chosen as the pathway for data transmission if an open 10 Mbps Ethernet link is also open, assuming everything else is equal. However, sometimes the higher bandwidth path is very busy and the time required for transmission on a busy, high bandwidth line is actually longer than on a path with a lower bandwidth. Load. This data packet transmission per unit time or the percent of CPU utilization of a router on a given path is referred to as the load on this path. Reliability.The reliability of a data transmission path can be quantitatively descri bed as the bit error rate and results in the assignment of numeric reliability metrics for the possible data transmission pathways. Delay. The delay in data transmission along a certain path is due to a combination of the metrics that have already been discussed, including geometric length of the transmission lines, bandwidth, and data traffic congestion. Because of the hybrid nature of the communications delay metric, it is commonly used in routing algorithms. Communication Cost.In some cases, the commercial cost of data transmission may be more important the time cost. Commercial organisations often prefer to transmit data over low capacity lines which they own as opposed to using public, high capacity lines that have usage charges. The routing algorithms do not have to use just one metric to determine the optimum route; rather it is possible to choose the optimum route based on multiple metrics. In order for the optimum path to be chosen by the routers between the data source and the data destination, the routers must communicate information about the relevant metrics with other routers.This nature of this communication process is also defined by the routing algorithm and the transmission time is linked to the time required for the routers to have the necessary information about the states of the surrounding routers. The time required for all the routers to agree on the state of the network, the network topology, is known as the convergence time and when all routers are aware of the network topology, the network is said to have converged. Some of the common routing algorithm types can indeed affect the convergence of the network.Some of the different algorithms characteristics that must be chosen when designing are static or dynamic routing, single path or multi-path routing and link state or distance vector routing. Static Routing. Static routing is done by use of a static list of attributes describing the network topology at the initiation of the network. This list, called a routing table, is used by the routers to decide the optimum routes for each type of data transmission and can only be changed manually. Therefore, if anything changes in the network, such as a cable breaking or a router crashing, the viability of the network is likely to be compromised.The advantage is that there is no communication required between routers, thus the network is always converged. Dynamic Routing. In contrast to static routing, dynamic routing continually updates the routing tables according to changes that might occur in the network topology. This type of real time information processing allows the network to adjust to variations in data traffic and component reliability, but does require communication between the routers and thus there is a convergence time cost associated with this solution.Single Path vs Multi-path Routing. Single path and muli-path routing are accurate descriptive terms regarding the use of either a single line to send multip le packets of data from a given source to a given destination as opposed to using multiple paths to send all the data packets from the source to the destination. Multiple path algorithms achieve a much higher transmission rate because of a more efficient utilization of available resources. Link State vs Dynamic Routing Protocols.Link-state algorithms are dynamic routing algorithms which require routers to send routing table information to all the routers in the network, but only that information which describes its own operational state. Distance-vector algorithms, however, require each router to send the whole of its router table, but only to the neighbouring routers. Because the link-state algorithms require small amounts of information to be sent to a large number of routers and the distance vector algorithm requires large amounts of information sent to a small number of routers, the link state algorithm will converge faster.However, link state algorithms require more system reso urces (CPU time and memory). There is a new type of algorithm developed by CISCO which is a hybrid of the link-state algorithm and the distance vector algorithm [8].. This proprietary algorithm converges faster than the typical distance-vector algorithm but provides more information to the routers than the typical link-state algorithm. This is because the routers are allowed to actively query one another to obtain the necessary information missing from the partial tables communicated by the link-state algorithms.At the same time, this hybrid algorithm avoids communication of any superfluous information exhibited in the router communications of the full tables associated with distance-vector algorithm. Switching. The distance vector, link state or hybrid algorithms all have the same purpose, to insure that all of the routers have an updated table that gives information on all the data transmission paths to a specific destination. Each of these protocols requires that when data is tra nsmitted from a source to a destination, the routers have the ability to ‘switch’ the address on the data transmission.When a router receives a data packet from a source with the destination address, it examines the address of the destination. If the router has a path to that destination in the routing table, then the router determines the address of the next router the data packet will ‘hop’ to and changes the physical address of packet to that of the next hop, and then transmits the packet. This process of physical address change is called ‘switching’. It will be repeated at each hop until the packet reaches the final destination.Although the physical address for the forwarding transmission of the data packet changes as the packet moves across the Internet, the final destination address remains associated with the packet and is a constant. The internet is divided up into hierarchical groups that are useful in the description of the switching process. At the bottom of this hierarchy are network devices without the capability to switch and forward packets between sub-networks, where an AS is a sub-network.These network devices are called end systems (ESs), because if a packet is transmitted there, it cannot be forwarded and has come to the end. At the top of the hierarchy are the network devices that can switch physical addresses are called intermediate systems (ISs). An IS which can only forward packets within a sub-network are referred to as intra-domain ISs while those which communicate either within or between sub-networks are called intra-domain ISs. Details of Routing Algorithms Link State AlgorithmsIn a link state algorithm, every router in the network is notified of a topology change at the same time. This avoids some of the problems associated with the nearest neighbour update propagation that occurs in the distance vector algorithms. The ‘Open Shortest Path First’ (OSPF) protocol uses a graph topolo gy algorithm like Dijkstra’s Algorithm to determine the best path for data transmission between a given data source and a data destination. The metric used for route optimisation is specific to the manual configuration of the router.However, the default metric is the speed of the interface. The OSPF uses a two level, hierarchical network classification. The lower level of hierarchy is groups of routers called areas. All the routers in an area have full knowledge of all the other routers in the area, but reduced knowledge of routers in a different area. The different areas organized within the OSPF algorithm are connected by border routers, which have full knowledge of multiple areas. The upper level of the hierarchy is the backbone network, to which all areas must be connected.That is, all data traffic going from one area to another must pass through the backbone routers. Distance Vector Algorithms In order for data to be transmitted from a source to a destination on the Inte rnet, the destination must be identified using some mechanism. That is, each possible destination for data transmission must be described with an address. The scheme currently used to address the internet space is the Internet Protocol (IP) version 4. The IP version 4 uses an address length limited by 32 bits. An example of an Internet address is 227. 130. 107.5 with the corresponding bit vector 11100011 10000010 01101011 00000101. An initial difficulty in managing the available address space was the implementation of a class structure, where large blocks of internet address space was reserved for organisations such as universities, leaving commercial applications with limited address space. Routing of data transmission in this address environment was referred to as class-full routing. To alleviate this problem of limited address space, the internet community has slowly evolved to a classless structure, with classless routing.In distance vector protocols, each router sends adjacent routers information about known paths to specific addresses. The neighbouring routers are sent information giving a distance metric of each one from a destination address. The distance metric could be the number of routers which must be used to reach the destination address, known as the ‘hop count’, or it could be the actual transmission distance in the network. Although this information is advertised only to the adjacent routers, these routers will then communicate the information with their neighbouring routers, and so on, until the entire network has the same information.This information is then used to build the routing table which associates the distance metric with a destination address. The distance vector protocol is implemented when a router receives a packet, notes the destination, determines the path with the shortest distance to the destination and then forwards the packet to the next router along the shortest distance path. One of the first distance vector protocols implemented on the Internet was the Routing Information Protocol (RIP). RIP uses the distance metric of hop count to determine the shortest distance to the destination address.It also implements several protocols to avoid having data packets pass through the same router more than once (router loops). The path vector protocol is a distance vector protocol that includes information on the routes over which the routing updates have been transmitted. It is this information on path structure which is used to avoid routing loops. Path Vector Protocols are also somewhat more sophisticated than RIP because an attempt is made to ‘weight’ each path based on a locally defined criteria that may not simply reflect the highest quality of service, but rather the highest profit for an ISP.The implementation of these types of router algorithms may be different in different parts of the Internet. When the algorithms are implemented inside an autonomous system, they are called Interior Gateway Protocols (IGP). Because the different autonomous systems that make up the Internet are independent from one another, the type of routing algorithm used within the autonomous systems can also be independent of one another.That is, the managers of each autonomous system are free to choose the type of algorithm which best suits their particular network, whether it is static or dynamic link-state or dynamic distance-vector. When the algorithms are implemented to control data transmission between autonomous systems, they are referred to as Exterior Gateway Protocols (EGP). The EGP connect all autonomous systems together to form the Internet and thus all EGP should use the same algorithm.The specific algorithm currently used as the EGP on the Internet is the Border Gateway Protocol (BGP), which is a type of distance vector algorithm called a path vector algorithm [9]. A path vector algorithm uses information about the final destination of the data transmission in additio n to the attributes of the neighbouring links. It should be noted that the BGP algorithm can also be used as a router protocol within an autonomous system and is called an interior BGP (IBGP) in that instance. This necessitates calling the BGP an EBGP when it is implemented as an EGP.